Biotechnology research would not be where it is today without each one of these significant "firsts". See what historical landmark accomplishments paved the way for modern scientific discovery.
1. Vaccine
1717 - Smallpox vaccination, using a mild strain, was introduced to England by Lady Mary Wortley. Development of attenuated vaccines and methods to improve titer came later.
2. Antibiotic
1929 - Penicillin, produced by mold, was discovered to have antibacterial properties, by Alexander Flemming. Many antibacterial properties of microorganisms involve the production of restriction enzymes.
3. Mutant Microbes
1941 - George Beadle and Edward Tatum used the mold species Neurospora to link specific mutations to individual steps (i.e. enzymes) in the biochemical pathways, and formulated the "one gene - one enzyme" hypothesis.
4. Whole Protein Sequenced
1955 - The complete amino acid sequence of bovine insulin was determined by Fred Sanger.
5. Artificial Gene Synthesized
1970 - The yeast alanine tRNA gene, of 77 base pairs, was chemically synthesized without a template by Har Gobind Khorana and colleagues.
6. Recombinant DNA Molecule
1972 - Paul Berg used a restriction enzyme to cut DNA and then used a ligase enzyme to paste two strands together in a circular form, These techniques have become essential steps for gene cloning.
7. Whole Genome Sequenced
1977 - The approximately 5000-base-pair DNA sequence of the bacterial virus phiX174 was determined by Fred Sanger. Gene sequencing methods have come a long way since, leading to the ultimate achievement of determining the human genome.
8. Cloned Protein Pharmaceutical Product
1978 - The gene for human insulin was cloned into Escherichia coli by researchers at Genentech, using recombinant DNA technology.
9. Animal Genome Sequenced
1998 - The nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans, with 100 million base pairs was sequenced at the Sanger Institute.